Can the processing of task-irrelevant threatening stimuli be inhibited? - The role of shape and valence in the saliency of threatening objects.

Numerous studies have demonstrated that attention is quickly oriented towards threatening stimuli, and that this attentional bias is difficult to inhibit. The root cause(s) of this bias may be attributable to the affective (e.g., valence) or visual features (e.g., shape) of threats. In two experiments (behavioral, eye-tracking), we tested which features play a bigger role in the salience of threats. In both experiments, participants looked for a neutral target (butterfly, lock) among other neutral objects. In half of the trials a threatening (snake, gun) or nonthreatening (but visually similar; worm, hairdryer) task-irrelevant distractor was also present at a near or far distance from the target. Behavioral results indicate that both distractor types interfered with task performance. Rejecting nonthreatening distractors as nontargets was easier when they were presented further from the target but distance had no effect when the distractor was threatening. Eye-tracking results showed that participants fixated less often (and for less time) on threatening compared to nonthreatening distractors. They also viewed targets for less time when a threatening distractor was present (compared to nonthreatening). Results suggest that visual features of threats are easier to suppress than affective features, and the latter may have a stronger role in eliciting attentional biases.

Executive attention modulates the facilitating effect of electronic storybooks on information encoding in preschoolers.

Interactive features and multimedia elements in electronic storybooks might enhance knowledge acquisition in children due to the playful learning experience they provide. However, to date, there is no systematic research on the long-term efficacy of storybooks, and the individual cognitive factors that influence information processing when using these apps. Therefore, in Experiment 1, we focused on long-term improvements. Children (M = 5.55 years, SD = 0.51, N = 33) were divided into an Interactive App group (N = 16) and a Print Book group (N = 17), then they were exposed to a story. Their recall performance was measured immediately after the exposure and three weeks later. In Experiment 2, we focused on individual differences in cognitive factors (working memory and sustained attention). Children (M = 5.56 years, SD = 0.62, N = 32) were exposed to three stories with interactive, multimedia-only elements and an audio-only condition. Caregivers were asked to fill out the ADHD Rating Scale-IV regarding each child. According to our results, in Experiment 1, children in the Interactive App group performed better compared to the Print Book group and this improvement persisted over time. In Experiment 2, we replicated the results of Experiment 1, however, children with poorer sustained attentional abilities performed worse in multimedia and interactive conditions compared to the audio-only condition. Our results indicate that electronic storybooks can facilitate learning because they enhance encoding efficacy. However, the benefit is only evident in children with good attentional control abilities. Our results guide parents and educators on how to choose and design age-appropriate applications for learning.

Task-irrelevant threatening information is harder to ignore than other valences.

Emotionally salient objects activate the survival circuits of the brain and are given priority in cognitive processing, even at the cost of inhibiting ongoing activities. These circuits arouse and prepare the organism to take swift action when needed. Previous studies have suggested, however, that not all emotional dimensions are equally prioritized. Threatening stimuli may have greater prominence than other emotional categories. Thus, we sought to compare the effects that stimuli of varying emotions would have on orienting and executive attentional processing. We performed two experiments to broaden our understanding of the attentional consequences of threats through the monitoring of participants' eye movements. Participants were exposed to emotionally charged (threatening, nonthreatening negative, positive) and neutral pictures as task-irrelevant distractors while performing a primary visual search task (under conditions of varying cognitive load). Behavioural results showed that participants found the first target number more slowly when the distractor image was threatening, but overall task completion times were actually speeded in this condition (relative to other valences). Further, participants fixated on threatening distractor images earlier and observed them longer than other valences. Results were more pronounced when the primary task was harder. These biases were not evident for positive and nonthreatening images, presumably because participants were able to ignore them, providing further support to the contention that threatening stimuli hold greater prominence than other emotional categories. Together, our results are in line with previous studies suggesting that the processing of threatening stimuli is speeded, potentially because of differences in the brain circuits involved. (PsycInfo Database Record (c) 2023 APA, all rights reserved).